Incredible years parenting program buffers prospective association between parent-reported harsh parenting and epigenetic age deceleration in children with externalizing behavior.

Harsh parenting has been shown to increase the risk of physical and mental health problems in later life. To improve our understanding of these risks and how they can be mitigated, we investigated associations of harsh parenting with a clinically relevant biomarker, epigenetic age deviation (EAD), using data from a randomized-control trial of the Incredible Years (IY) parenting program. This study included 281 children aged 4-8 years who were screened for heightened externalizing behavior and whose parents were randomly allocated to either IY or care-as-usual (CAU). Parents reported on their own parenting practices and their child's externalizing behavior at baseline and at a follow-up assessment approximately three years later. Epigenetic age, based on the Pediatric Buccal Epigenetic (PedBE) clock, was estimated from child DNA methylation derived from saliva collected at the follow-up assessment. PedBE clock estimates were regressed on chronological age as a measure of EAD. Moderation analyses using multiple regression revealed that harsher parenting at baseline predicted epigenetic age deceleration in children that received CAU (b = -.21, 95% CI[-0.37, -0.05]), but no association was found in children whose parents were allocated to IY (b = -.02, 95% CI [-0.13, 0.19]). These results highlight a prospective association between harsh parenting and children's EAD and indicate a potential ameliorating effect of preventive intervention. Future work is needed to replicate these findings and understand individual differences in children's responses to harsh parenting in relation to epigenetic aging.

DNA methylation variation after a parenting program for child conduct problems: Findings from a randomized controlled trial.

This study investigated associations of the Incredible Years (IY) parenting program with children's DNA methylation. Participants were 289 Dutch children aged 3-9 years (75% European ancestry, 48% female) with above-average conduct problems. Saliva was collected 2.5 years after families were randomized to IY or care as usual (CAU). Using an intention-to-treat approach, confirmatory multiple-regression analyses revealed no significant differences between the IY and CAU groups in children's methylation levels at the NR3C1 and FKBP5 genes. However, exploratory epigenome-wide analyses revealed nine differentially methylated regions between groups, coinciding with SLAMF1, MITF, FAM200B, PSD3, SNX31, and CELSR1. The study provides preliminary evidence for associations of IY with children's salivary methylation levels and highlights the need for further research into biological outcomes of parenting programs.

The role of emotion recognition in the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment: A multigenerational family study.

BACKGROUND: Understanding how child maltreatment is passed down from one generation to the next is crucial for the development of intervention and prevention strategies that may break the cycle of child maltreatment. Changes in emotion recognition due to childhood maltreatment have repeatedly been found, and may underly the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. OBJECTIVE: In this study we, therefore, examined whether the ability to recognize emotions plays a role in the intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: A total of 250 parents (104 males, 146 females) were included that participated in a three-generation family study. METHOD: Participants completed an emotion recognition task in which they were presented with series of photographs that depicted the unfolding of facial expressions from neutrality to the peak emotions anger, fear, happiness, and sadness. Multi-informant measures were used to examine experienced and perpetrated child maltreatment. RESULTS: A history of abuse, but not neglect, predicted a shorter reaction time to identify fear and anger. In addition, parents who showed higher levels of neglectful behavior made more errors in identifying fear, whereas parents who showed higher levels of abusive behavior made more errors in identifying anger. Emotion recognition did not mediate the association between experienced and perpetrated child maltreatment. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between abuse and neglect when investigating the precursors and sequalae of child maltreatment. In addition, the effectiveness of interventions that aim to break the cycle of abuse and neglect could be improved by better addressing the specific problems with emotion processing of abusive and neglectful parents.

Neural and affective responses to prolonged eye contact with parents in depressed and nondepressed adolescents.

Eye contact improves mood, facilitates connectedness, and is assumed to strengthen the parent-child bond. Adolescent depression is linked to difficulties in social interactions, the parent-child bond included. Our goal was to elucidate adolescents' affective and neural responses to prolonged eye contact with one's parent in nondepressed adolescents (HC) and how these responses are affected in depressed adolescents. While in the scanner, 59 nondepressed and 19 depressed adolescents were asked to make eye contact with their parent, an unfamiliar peer, an unfamiliar adult, and themselves by using videos of prolonged direct and averted gaze, as an approximation of eye contact. After each trial, adolescents reported on their mood and feelings of connectedness, and eye movements and BOLD-responses were assessed. In HCs, eye contact boosted mood and feelings of connectedness and increased activity in inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), temporal pole, and superior frontal gyrus. Unlike HCs, eye contact did not boost the mood of depressed adolescents. While HCs reported increased mood and feelings of connectedness to the sight of their parent versus others, depressed adolescents did not. Depressed adolescents exhibited blunted overall IFG activity. These findings show that adolescents are particularly sensitive to eye contact and respond strongly to the sight of their parents. This sensitivity seems to be blunted in depressed adolescents. For clinical purposes, it is important to gain a better understanding of how the responsivity to eye contact in general and with their parents in particular, can be restored in adolescents with depression.

Sticky criticism? Affective and neural responses to parental criticism and praise in adolescents with depression.

BACKGROUND: Parent-adolescent interactions, particularly parental criticism and praise, have previously been identified as factors relevant to self-concept development and, when negative, to adolescent depression. Yet, whether adolescents with depression show aberrant emotional and neural reactivity to parental criticism and praise is understudied. METHODS: Adolescents with depression (n = 20) and healthy controls (n = 59) received feedback supposedly provided by their mother or father in the form of negative ('untrustworthy'), neutral ('chaotic'), and positive ('respectful') personality evaluations while in an MRI-scanner. After each feedback word, adolescents reported their mood. Beforehand, adolescents had rated whether these personality evaluations matched their self-views. RESULTS: In both groups, mood decreased after criticism and increased after praise. Adolescents with depression reported blunted mood responses after praise, whereas there were no mood differences after criticism. Neuroimaging analyses revealed that adolescents with depression (v. healthy controls) exhibited increased activity in response to criticism in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, temporal pole, hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Praise consistent with adolescents' self-views improved mood independent of depression status, while criticism matching self-views resulted in smaller mood increases in adolescents with depression (v. healthy controls). Exploratory analyses indicated that adolescents with depression recalled criticism (v. praise) more. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents with depression might be especially attentive to parental criticism, as indexed by increased sgACC and hippocampus activity, and memorize this criticism more. Together with lower positive impact of praise, these findings suggest that cognitive biases in adolescent depression may affect how parental feedback is processed, and may be fed into their self-views.

Looking into troubled waters: Childhood emotional maltreatment modulates neural responses to prolonged gazing into one's own, but not others', eyes.

One of the most prevalent nonverbal, social phenomena known to automatically elicit self- and other-referential processes is eye contact. By its negative effects on the perception of social safety and views about the self and others, childhood emotional maltreatment (CEM) may fundamentally affect these processes. To investigate whether the socioaffective consequences of CEM may become visible in response to (prolonged) eye gaze, 79 adult participants (mean [M]age = 49.87, standard deviation [SD]age = 4.62) viewed videos with direct and averted gaze of an unfamiliar other and themselves while we recorded self-reported mood, eye movements using eye-tracking, and markers of neural activity using fMRI. Participants who reported higher levels of CEM exhibited increased activity in ventromedial prefrontal cortex to one's own, but not to others', direct gaze. Furthermore, in contrast to those who reported fewer of such experiences, they did not report a better mood in response to a direct gaze of self and others, despite equivalent amounts of time spent looking into their own and other peoples' eyes. The fact that CEM is associated with enhanced neural activation in a brain area that is crucially involved in self-referential processing (i.e., vmPFC) in response to one's own direct gaze is in line with the chronic negative impact of CEM on a person's self-views. Interventions that directly focus on targeting maladaptive self-views elicited during eye gaze to self may be clinically useful.

Adding physical activity to intensive trauma-focused treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder: results of a randomized controlled trial.

Introduction: This randomized controlled trial examined the effectiveness of physical activity added to an intensive trauma-focused treatment (TFT) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in comparison to adding non-physical control activities. Methods: A total of 119 patients with PTSD were randomly assigned to a physical activity condition (PA; n = 59) or a non-physical activity control condition (nPA; n = 60). The 8-day intensive TFT programme consisted of daily prolonged exposure, EMDR therapy, and psychoeducation, which was complemented with physical activities versus controlled mixtures of guided (creative) tasks. As a primary outcome, the change in clinician and self-reported PTSD symptoms from pre-to post-treatment and at 6 months follow-up were measured. Results: Intent-to-treat linear mixed-effects models showed no significant differences between the PA and nPA conditions on change in PTSD severity. Clinician and self-reported PTSD symptoms significantly decreased for both conditions, with large effect sizes (e.g., CAPS-5 dpre-post = 2.28). At post-treatment, 80.0% in the PA, and 82.7% in the nPA condition no longer met the diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Regarding the loss of Complex PTSD diagnoses this was 92.5% and 95.0%, respectively. Conclusion: Either with additional physical or non-physical activities, intensive TFT is very effective for the treatment of (Complex) PTSD, as reflected by large effect sizes and loss of diagnostic status in both groups. Clinical trial registration: Trialregister.nl Identifier: Trial NL9120.

Aberrant neural network activation during reliving of autobiographical memories in adolescent depression.

BACKGROUND: Adolescents with depression exhibit negative biases in autobiographical memory with detrimental consequences for their self-concept and well-being. Investigating how adolescents relive positive autobiographical memories and activate the underlying neural networks could reveal mechanisms that drive such biases. This study investigated neural networks when reliving positive and neutral memories, and how neural activity is modulated by valence and vividness in adolescents with and without depression. METHODS: Adolescents (N = 69; n = 17 with depression) retrieved positive and neutral autobiographical memories. On a separate day, they relived these memories during fMRI scanning, and reported on pleasantness and vividness after reliving each memory. We used a multivariate, data-driven approach - event-related independent component analysis (eICA) - to characterize neural networks supporting autobiographical recollection. RESULTS: Adolescents with depression reported their positive memories as significantly less pleasant compared to healthy controls, while subjective vividness was unaffected. Using eICA, we identified a broad autobiographical memory network, and subnetworks related to reliving positive vs neutral memories. These subnetworks comprised a 'self-referential processing network' including medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex/precuneus, and temporoparietal junction, anti-correlating with parts of the central executive network and salience network. Adolescents with depression exhibited aberrant activation in this self-referential network, but only when reliving relatively 'low' pleasant memories. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide first insights into how the quality of reliving autobiographical memories in adolescents with depression may relate to aberrant self-referential neural network activation, and underscore the potential of targeting memory reliving in therapeutic interventions to foster self-esteem and diminish depressive symptoms.

Maternal sensitivity and child internalizing and externalizing behavior: a mediating role for glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) methylation?

The early caregiving environment can have lasting effects on child mental health. Animal models suggest that glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) DNA methylation plays a mediating role in linking more responsive caregiving to improved behavioral outcomes by its impact on the stress regulatory system. In this longitudinal study, we examined whether children's NR3C1 methylation levels mediate an effect of maternal sensitivity in infancy on levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior in a community sample. Maternal sensitivity of 145 mothers was rated at infant age 5 weeks, 12 months, and 30 months by observing mother-infant interactions. Buccal DNA methylation was assessed in the same children at age 6 years and maternal-reported internalizing and externalizing behavior was assessed at age 6 and 10 years. Higher sensitivity at age 5 weeks significantly predicted lower DNA methylation levels at two NR3C1 CpG loci, although methylation levels at these loci did not mediate an effect of maternal sensitivity on levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior. Overall, the study provides evidence that maternal sensitivity in early infancy is associated with DNA methylation levels at loci involved in stress regulation, but the significance of this finding for child mental health remains unclear.

Cumulative risk exposure and child cellular aging in a Dutch low-risk community sample.

One of the proposed mechanisms linking childhood stressor exposure to negative mental and physical health outcomes in later life is cellular aging. In this prospective, longitudinal, and pre-registered study, we examined the association between a cumulative pattern of childhood risk exposure from age 6 to age 10 (i.e., poor maternal mental health, parental relationship problems, family/friend death, bullying victimization, poor quality friendships) and change in two biomarkers of cellular aging (i.e., telomere length, epigenetic age) from age 6 to age 10 in a Dutch low-risk community sample (n = 193). We further examined the moderating effect of cortisol reactivity at age 6. Ordinary Least Squares regression analyses revealed no significant main effects of childhood risk exposure on change in cellular aging, nor a moderation effect of child cortisol reactivity. Secondary findings showed a positive correlation between telomere length and cortisol reactivity at age 6, warranting further investigation. More research in similar communities is needed before drawing strong conclusions based on the null results.

Attachment insecurity and the biological embedding of reproductive strategies: Investigating the role of cellular aging.

Evolutionary-developmental psychologists have posited that individuals who grow up in stressful rearing circumstances follow faster life history strategies, thereby increasing their chances of reproduction. This preregistered study tested this stress-acceleration hypothesis in a low-risk longitudinal sample of 193 Dutch mother-child dyads, by investigating whether infant-mother attachment insecurity at 12 months of age predicted earlier pubertal onset and more callous-unemotional traits, aggression and risk-taking about a decade later. Also evaluated were the possible mediating roles of two biomarkers of accelerated aging (i.e., telomere length, epigenetic aging) at age 6. Structural equation modelling revealed no effects of attachment insecurity on biomarkers, pubertal timing or behavior. These null findings suggest that the explanatory value of evolutionary-developmental thinking might be restricted to high-risk samples, though unexplored variation in susceptibility to environmental influences might also explain the null findings.

Neural and Affective Responses to Prolonged Eye Contact with One's Own Adolescent Child and Unfamiliar Others.

Eye contact is crucial for the formation and maintenance of social relationships, and plays a key role in facilitating a strong parent-child bond. However, the precise neural and affective mechanisms through which eye contact impacts on parent-child relationships remain elusive. We introduce a task to assess parents' neural and affective responses to prolonged direct and averted gaze coming from their own child, and an unfamiliar child and adult. While in the scanner, 79 parents (n = 44 mothers and n = 35 fathers) were presented with prolonged (16-38 s) videos of their own child, an unfamiliar child, an unfamiliar adult, and themselves (i.e., targets), facing the camera with a direct or an averted gaze. We measured BOLD-responses, tracked parents' eye movements during the videos, and asked them to report on their mood and feelings of connectedness with the targets after each video. Parents reported improved mood and increased feelings of connectedness after prolonged exposure to direct versus averted gaze and these effects were amplified for unfamiliar targets compared to their own child, due to high affect and connectedness ratings after videos of their own child. Neuroimaging results showed that the sight of one's own child was associated with increased activity in middle occipital gyrus, fusiform gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus relative to seeing an unfamiliar child or adult. While we found no robust evidence of specific neural correlates of eye contact (i.e., contrast direct > averted gaze), an exploratory parametric analysis showed that dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) activity increased linearly with duration of eye contact (collapsed across all "other" targets). Eye contact-related dmPFC activity correlated positively with increases in feelings of connectedness, suggesting that this region may drive feelings of connectedness during prolonged eye contact with others. These results underline the importance of prolonged eye contact for affiliative processes and provide first insights into its neural correlates. This may pave the way for new research in individuals or pairs in whom affiliative processes are disrupted.

Eyes on you: Ensuring empathic accuracy or signalling empathy?

The eye region is thought to play an important role in the ability to accurately infer others' feelings, or empathic accuracy (EA), which is an important skill for social interaction. However, most past studies used static pictures, including only visual information, and knowledge about the contribution of the eye region to EA when visual information is presented together with verbal content is lacking. We therefore examined whether eye gazing contributes to EA during videos of emotional autobiographical stories including both visual and verbal content. One hundred seven perceivers watched videos of targets talking about positive and negative life events and continuously rated the targets' feelings during the videos. Simultaneously, perceivers' eyes were tracked. After each video, perceivers reported on their feelings and the extent to which they empathized with and took the perspective of the targets. In contrast to studies using static pictures, we found that gazing to the eyes of targets during the videos did not significantly contribute to EA. At the same time, results on the association between the amount of gaze towards the eye region of targets and perceivers' state and trait empathy ratings suggest that eye gazing might signal empathy and social engagement to others.

Adolescents' affective and neural responses to parental praise and criticism.

Social feedback from parents has a profound impact on the development of a child's self-concept. Yet, little is known about adolescents' affective and neural responses to parental social feedback, such as criticism or praise. Adolescents (n = 63) received standardized social feedback supposedly provided by their mother or father in the form of appraisals about their personality (e.g., 'respectful', 'lazy') during fMRI scanning. After each feedback word, adolescents reported their mood. Additionally, adolescents had rated whether feedback words matched their self-views on an earlier occasion. In line with preregistered hypotheses, negative parental feedback worsened adolescents' mood, which was exacerbated when feedback did not match adolescents' self-views. Negative feedback was associated with increased activity in the neural 'saliency network', including anterior insula, anterior cingulate cortex and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. Positive feedback improved mood and increased activity in brain regions supporting social cognition, including temporoparietal junction, posterior superior temporal sulcus, and precuneus. A more positive general self-view and perceived parental warmth were associated with elevated mood, independent of feedback valence, but did not impact neural responses. Taken together, these results enhance our understanding of adolescents' neural circuitry involved in the processing of parental praise and criticism, and the impact of parental feedback on well-being.

Maternal Prenatal Anxiety and the Fetal Origins of Epigenetic Aging.

BACKGROUND: The fetal origins of mental health is a well-established framework that currently lacks a robust index of the biological embedding of prenatal adversity. The Pediatric-Buccal-Epigenetic (PedBE) clock is a novel epigenetic tool that associates with aspects of the prenatal environment, but additional validation in longitudinal datasets is required. Likewise, the relationship between prenatal maternal mental health and the PedBE clock has not been described. METHODS: Longitudinal cohorts from the Netherlands (Basal Influences on Baby Development [BIBO] n = 165) and Singapore (Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes [GUSTO] n = 340) provided data on prenatal maternal anxiety and longitudinal assessments of buccal cell-derived genome-wide DNA methylation assessed at 6 and 10 years of age in BIBO, and at 3, 9, and 48 months of age in GUSTO. Measures of epigenetic age acceleration were calculated using the PedBE clock and benchmarked against an established multi-tissue epigenetic predictor. RESULTS: Prenatal maternal anxiety predicted child PedBE epigenetic age acceleration in both cohorts, with effects largely restricted to males and not females. These results were independent of obstetric, socioeconomic, and genetic risk factors, with a larger effect size for prenatal anxiety than depression. PedBE age acceleration predicted increased externalizing symptoms in males from mid- to late childhood in the BIBO cohort only. CONCLUSIONS: These findings point to the fetal origins of epigenetic age acceleration and reveal an increased sensitivity in males. Convergent evidence underscores the societal importance of providing timely and effective mental health support to pregnant individuals, which may have lasting consequences for both mother and child.

Relational self-evaluations in dissociation: Implicit self-rejection?

OBJECTIVE: Schematic self-knowledge consists of internal representations that shape perceptions of how the self is related to one's surroundings and other people. These representations may include dysfunctional implicit self-evaluations, such as associations of the self with negative attributes like shame, in trauma-spectrum disorders. The current study examines whether a negative relational self-association, that is, linking the self with rejection, characterizes dissociation. METHOD: One hundred six community participants with diverse early interpersonal experiences and mental health outcomes were recruited. Implicit relational self-evaluation was assessed by single-target implicit association tests. Dissociation and common psychopathological and psychosocial correlates such as anxiety, depression, self-esteem, and adverse interpersonal experiences were measured using standardized scales. RESULTS: Individuals with more dissociative symptoms responded faster when pairing self-pronouns with rejection-related words than with acceptance-related words. The correlation between dissociation and this self-rejection association remained significant when statistically controlling for adverse interpersonal experiences and for depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. CONCLUSION: A self-association with being rejected characterized individuals prone to dissociation. This dysfunctional implicit self-evaluation may bias perceptions of other people's attitudes toward themselves, prompting maladaptive social behaviors that can hinder the development and maintenance of relationships in dissociative people. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

How representative are neuroimaging samples? Large-scale evidence for trait anxiety differences between fMRI and behaviour-only research participants.

Over the past three decades, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has become crucial to study how cognitive processes are implemented in the human brain. However, the question of whether participants recruited into fMRI studies differ from participants recruited into other study contexts has received little to no attention. This is particularly pertinent when effects fail to generalize across study contexts: for example, a behavioural effect discovered in a non-imaging context not replicating in a neuroimaging environment. Here, we tested the hypothesis, motivated by preliminary findings (N = 272), that fMRI participants differ from behaviour-only participants on one fundamental individual difference variable: trait anxiety. Analysing trait anxiety scores and possible confounding variables from healthy volunteers across multiple institutions (N = 3317), we found robust support for lower trait anxiety in fMRI study participants, consistent with a sampling or self-selection bias. The bias was larger in studies that relied on phone screening (compared with full in-person psychiatric screening), recruited at least partly from convenience samples (compared with community samples), and in pharmacology studies. Our findings highlight the need for surveying trait anxiety at recruitment and for appropriate screening procedures or sampling strategies to mitigate this bias.

Child maltreatment and parent-offspring interaction: A multigenerational extended family design.

In the current study, the associations between multiple types of child maltreatment (CM), parent-offspring interactions, and family cohesion were examined in an extended family study. A total of 366 parent-offspring pairs from 137 nuclear families participated. Parents (Mage = 52.8 years, age range: 26.6-88.4 years, 57% female) reported about perpetrated CM and offspring (Mage = 25.7 years, range: 7.5-65.5 years, 58% female) about experienced CM during their childhood. Parent-offspring interactions were observed during a conflict interaction task. Cohesion within the nuclear family was observed during a playful tower building task. Results showed that parents and offspring displayed more aversive behavior in parent-offspring dyads characterized by higher levels of child abuse, but not in dyads characterized by higher levels of child neglect. In addition, less dyadic affective similarity was observed in parent-offspring dyads characterized by higher levels of child neglect, whereas dyadic affective similarity was higher in dyads characterized by higher levels of child abuse. Findings imply that interventions focused on parent-offspring interactions with a somewhat different content for neglectful and abusive families may be efficacious for families in the child welfare system. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Neural signatures of parental empathic responses to imagined suffering of their adolescent child.

Empathy is deemed indispensable for sensitive caregiving. Neuroimaging studies have identified canonical empathy networks consisting of regions supporting cognitive and affective aspects of empathy. However, not much is known about how these regions support empathy towards one's own offspring and how this neural activity relates to parental caregiving. We introduce a novel task to assess affective and neural responses to the suffering of one's own adolescent child. While in the scanner, 60 parents (n = 35 mothers, n = 25 fathers) were confronted with unpleasant situations involving their own child, an unfamiliar child, and themselves. Parents were asked to vividly imagine these situations and indicate their levels of distress. Parents reported higher levels of distress when imagining suffering for their own child relative to an unfamiliar child or themselves. Neuroimaging results showed increased activation within the cognitive empathy network (i.e., temporoparietal junction, dorsomedial- and ventromedial prefrontal cortex) when contrasting suffering of one's own child versus an unfamiliar child or the self. The task also engaged regions of the affective empathy network (i.e., anterior insula and anterior mid-cingulate cortex), which was however not modulated by whether suffering was for the self, one's own child, or an unfamiliar child. Parental care did not co-vary with activity in the empathy networks, but parents who were perceived as less caring exhibited increased activity in anterior prefrontal regions when imagining their own child suffering. These results provide new insights into neural processes supporting parental empathy, highlighting the importance of regions in the cognitive empathy network when confronted with the suffering of their own adolescent child, and suggest that additional (i.e., emotion regulation) networks may be relevant for parental caring behavior in daily life.

Vicarious praise and pain: parental neural responses to social feedback about their adolescent child.

Social feedback, such as praise or critique, profoundly impacts our mood and social interactions. It is unknown, however, how parents experience praise and critique about their child and whether their mood and neural responses to such 'vicarious' social feedback are modulated by parents' perceptions of their child. Parents (n = 60) received positive, intermediate and negative feedback words (i.e. personality characteristics) about their adolescent child during a magnetic resonance imaging scan. After each word, parents indicated their mood. After positive feedback their mood improved and activity in ventromedial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex/precuneus increased. Negative feedback worsened parents' mood, especially when perceived as inapplicable to their child, and increased activity in anterior cingulate cortex, anterior insula, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and precuneus. Parents who generally viewed their child more positively showed amplified mood responses to both positive and negative feedback and increased activity in dorsal striatum, inferior frontal gyrus and insula in response to negative feedback. These findings suggest that vicarious feedback has similar effects and engages similar brain regions as observed during feedback about the self and illustrates this is dependent on parents' beliefs of their child's qualities and flaws. Potential implications for parent-child dynamics and children's own self-views are discussed.